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Peatlands are remarkable wetlands due to their rich and unique biodiversity and critical ecosystem functions and services. In fact, peatlands store more carbon (C), more efficiently and longer than any other terrestrial ecosystem [1]. Canada is home to nearly one third of the world's peatlands [2] and stands as a leading producer and exporter of horticultural peat, which is crucial for food security [3]. Canadian horticultural peat is widely utilised in growing vegetables, fruits, herbs, mushrooms, and seedbeds for greenhouse and field crops (including food, flowers, cannabis, and tree seedlings for reforestation). Approximately 70% is used by professional growers, while 30% is utilized by consumers and gardeners [4]. The horticultural peat industry supports an estimated 6,400 full-time equivalent jobs in Canada through direct and indirect economic impacts [5]. Despite this, horticultural peat extraction accounts for the smallest footprint among human activities impacting peatlands in Canada, with an active disturbance area of around 25,000 hectares [6]. 

The Canadian peat industry, along with its representative organization, the Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association (CSPMA), has made the ecological restoration of post-extraction peatlands its main focus for rehabilitation efforts. In that context, from 2018 to 2024, numerous Canadian researchers and collaborators participated in a large-scale research project supported by a Collaborative Research and Development grant (CRD) of the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). This initiative was undertaken in partnership with the CSPMA, its members, and Ducks Unlimited Canada. 

The 2018-2024 CRD grant facilitated the continued work of the Peatland Ecology Research Group (PERG), led by Line Rochefort, extending a collaboration of over three decades between researchers, the Canadian peat industry, government agencies, and NGOs. Indeed, since the 1990s, the research programmes have successfully led the development of a restoration method for bogs (Sphagnum-dominated peatlands) based on the active reintroduction of vegetation, known as the “Moss Layer Transfer Technique” (MLTT) [7], investigated restoration method for fens (minerotrophic peatlands) and explored Sphagnum moss cultivation through various trials. It has also contributed to improving our knowledge on peatland plant ecology, hydrology and greenhouse gas exchange.  

Despite significant progress, there is still room for improvement in various aspects of peatland restoration and Sphagnum farming. Consequently, the 2018-2024 CRD grant research programme chaired by Line Rochefort (Université Laval) was designed as a pan-Canadian initiative, driven by a commitment to the sustainable and responsible management of peat resources. This effort brought together experts from diverse fields such as hydrology, geochemistry, soils, flora, and fauna, notably Jonathan Price and Maria Strack (University of Waterloo), William Shotyk and Kevin Devito (University of Alberta), Pete Whittington (Brandon University), Marion Tétégan Simon (Université de Moncton), Stéphane Godbout, Robert Lagacé, André Desrochers and Monique Poulin (Université Laval), Christopher Freeman and Christian Dunn (Bangor University, UK), and Hojeong Kang (Yonsei University, South Korea). In all, fourteen graduate students, three postdoctoral fellows, and more than 50 undergraduate students and interns have carried out or worked on research projects as part of the programme. 

Four main research themes were addressed: 

• Managing for biodiversity; 

• Managing for water regulation and water quality;  

• Managing for carbon sequestration; 

• Managing for Sphagnum biomass. 

The CRD's research programme has produced the following results: 

• The study continued to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of 151 restoration projects that used the Moss Layer Transfer Technique (MLTT), aiming for an ambitious benchmark set by natural reference ecosystems. The MLTT demonstrated its efficiency, particularly in a specific region of Eastern Canada, where 80% of the restoration projects were classified as similar to their regional natural references [8]. Additionally, the study underscored regional distinctions between restored sites in Eastern and Western Canada utilizing the MLTT. For instance, peat extraction in Western Canada often leaves behind nutrient-rich residual soil, which is less conducive to the re-establishment of Sphagnum moss carpets. Consequently, fen (minerotrophic peatland) communities tend to form more spontaneously in these regions after restoration. The research also confirmed that the MLTT promotes the recovery of 70% bryophyte diversity within Sphagnum-dominated peatlands [9]. Furthermore, restored peatlands have been shown to attract bird species similar to those found in natural sites, providing valuable habitats for species in decline [10]. Although the MLTT is already widely recognized and applied across Canada and Northern Europe, these recent findings are expected to encourage practitioners to adopt its use more broadly, both within Canada and internationally. The method has now been adapted to restore other types of disturbance in peatlands, such as oil and gas in-situ extraction platforms [11] and roads [12], demonstrating promising results. 

• The evaluation of 114 restoration projects demonstrated that minimal phosphorus fertilisation is an important step of the MLTT, highlighting its role in promoting the germination of the nurse plant, Polytrichum strictum, and subsequently accelerating the development of a thick Sphagnum carpet, possibly increasing carbon sequestration [13]. Moreover, it proved essential in regions experiencing freeze-thaw cycles, supporting its adoption as a standard practice for peatland restoration. 

• The study leveraged the physiological traits of Sphagnum to establish hydrological indicators that connect revegetation patterns with restoration success. Notably, fascicle density and bulk density emerged as the most reliable predictors of water retention. Additionally, findings revealed that Sphagnum mosses in restored peatlands prioritize structural growth over vertical growth, contributing to enhanced water retention in the long term. By utilising biomass accumulation and peat respiration, the research demonstrated the feasibility of developing straightforward indicators for monitoring carbon accumulation in restored peatlands using MLTT. 

• Insights have been provided into the distinct environmental conditions of restored peatland pools compared to reference pools, especially for voluntarily created pools, both in the context of bogs [14] and fens. The importance of implementing customized restoration practices for pools has been emphasized, focusing on designs that replicate reference conditions to enhance species recolonization and promote greater biodiversity. 

• A rehabilitation method was developed for mineral roads on peatland areas, involving mechanical decompaction of the soil and tree planting. This approach is particularly useful when removing mineral material is unfeasible or restoring the road to its peatland state is impractical. 

• Research revealed that peatland drainage and peat extraction can affect water quality. It leads to higher nutrient levels in peat water, extends flow duration, and increases nutrient export due to enhanced subsurface hydrological connectivity [15]. However, these impacts are short-term and influenced by the landscape's position and the scale of operations. However, these impacts are short-term and influenced by the scale of operations and the landscape's position, and it is often undetectable once in the receiving water course.  

• In fen restoration, the study improved understanding of landscape environmental and abiotic factors influencing the recovery of vascular plants and fen moss species. It confirmed that active rewetting is essential to promote the return of peatland species, although vascular plants thrive better than bryophytes, and excessive and prolonged flooding must be avoided [16].

• The need for future research into recontouring techniques to restore fen hydrology in Manitoba has been emphasized, given the significant yearly climatic variations in the Canadian prairie provinces. It also highlighted the potential of ecotone (peatland margins) restoration to improve connectivity with the adjacent ecosystems and hydrological conditions by retaining water on slopes [17]. 

• For Sphagnum farming, several innovative methods have been proposed to optimize water management and growth, and they are already in use, such as using micro-irrigation channels to enhance water distribution and support moss growth [18]. Based on the work carried out on Sphagnum farming since the 2000s, a monograph on the state of knowledge was published in 2022 [19]. 

• Different management practices to test the addition of phenolic compounds for the short-term suppression of peat decomposition in post-extracted peatlands or within a Sphagnum farming system did not support the theory of the enzymic latch mechanism (ELM) as the main mechanism to impede peat decomposition [20]. During the short period of this experiment (1 year), phenolic products neither strengthened ELM nor inhibited enzyme activity in Sphagnum mosses [21]. 

Thus, significant progress has been achieved in the ecological restoration of peatlands and the development of Sphagnum farming techniques. This knowledge is invaluable not only to the horticultural peat industry but also to any company, government, or organization involved in restoring disturbed peatlands for the benefit of future generations.  

The findings supported by the CRD grant have provided the Canadian peat industry with critical insights to enhance peatland restoration practices. One notable example is the Responsibly Managed Peatland Certification under the SCS Global VeriFlora® programme [22], which sets a high standard for responsible peatland management. As a leader in the private sector, the Canadian peat industry serves as a model for other natural resource sectors, particularly in its support for Target 2 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework 2022. This framework aims to restore 30% of Canada’s degraded ecosystems. The industry also plays a pivotal role in advancing peatland ecological restoration during the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030). 

Peatland restoration seeks to reconcile environmental footprint with the economical use of peatlands by restoring their ecological functions and services after disturbances. The results of this research show that we are well on the way to achieving this goal! A recent international meta-analysis on peatland restoration showed, indeed, that active reintroduction of peatland plants such as Sphagnum mosses ‒ as the MLTT does ‒ successfully accelerates the reestablishment of peatland vegetation cover [23]. 

Footnotes

[1]. Convention on Wetlands*. (2021). Restoring drained peatlands: A necessary step to achieve global climate goals. Ramsar Policy Brief No. 5. Gland, Switzerland: Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands. 7 pp. (* Authors: Dinesen L, Joosten H, Rochefort L, Lindsay R & Glatzel S)   

[2]. Xu J, Morris PJ, Liu J & Holden J (2017). PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. Catena 160: 134–140; DOI: 10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010. 

 Rochefort L, Strack M & Chimner R (coordinating lead authors) (2022). Regional assessment for North America. Chapter 7 (pp. 193-200) in:  United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Global peatlands assessment ‒ The state of the world’s peatlands: Evidence for action toward the conservation, restoration and sustainable management of peatlands. Main Report. Global Peatlands Initiative. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.   

[3]. Blok C, Eveleens B, & Van Winkel A (2021). Growing media for food and quality of life in the period 2020-2050. Acta Horculturae 1305, 341–356.

[4]. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association (CSPMA) (2024). 2023 Statistics about Peatland Areas Managed for Horticultural Peat Extraction in Canada. Internal Report.

[5]. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association: https://peatmoss.com/peat/

[6]. Global Peatlands Assessment (2022); https://www.unep.org/resources/global-peatlands-assessment-2022 

[7]. Quinty F & Rochefort L (2003) Peatland restoration guide, 2nd ed. Canadian Sphagnum Peat Moss Association et New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy. Québec, Québec. 106 pp.  

Quinty F, LeBlanc MC & Rochefort L (2019) Peatland Restoration Guide – Plant Material Collecting and Donor Site Management. PERG, CSPMA and APTHQ. Québec City, Québec.  

Quinty F, LeBlanc MC & Rochefort L (2020a, b, c) Peatland Restoration Guide – a. Planning Restoration Projects. b. Site Preparation and Rewetting. c. Spreading of Plant Material, Mulch and Fertilizer. PERG, CSPMA and APTHQ. Québec City, Québec.  

[8]. Breton G, Guêné-Nanchen M & Rochefort L (Submitted April 2, 2025) Long-term assessment of the Moss Layer Transfer Technique for the restoration of Sphagnum-dominated peatlands. Restoration Ecology (ms # REC-25-212).

[9]. Boucher C (2023). Restauration de tourbières selon la méthode de transfert de la couche muscinale: diversité en bryophytes. MSc thesis, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada. 96 pp.

[10]. Desrochers A & Rochefort L (2021). Avian recolonization of unrestored and restored bogs in Eastern Canada. bioRxiv; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.11.26.470119.  

[11]. Gauthier M-E, Rochefort L, Nadeau L, Hugron S & Xu B (2018). Testing the moss layer transfer technique on mineral well pads constructed in peatlands. Wetlands Ecology and Management 26: 475-487.

[12]. Pouliot K, Rochefort L, LeBlanc M-C, Guêné-Nanchen M Beauchemin A. 2021. The Burial Under Peat Technique: an innovative method to restore Sphagnum peatlands impacted by mineral linear disturbances. Frontiers in Earth Science (Biogeoscience) 9: 658470.

[13]. Liu C, Guêné-Nanchen M & Rochefort L (2024). Improving restoration outcomes of boreal Sphagnum-dominated peatlands after peat-extraction: The key role of phosphorus fertilization. Biological Conservation 298: 110770.

[14]. Riaño Peña L, Guêné-Nanchen M, Janssen P, Poulin M & Rochefort L (Submitted April 11, 2025). Environmental Influences on Plant Diversity in Restored and Natural Peatland Pools. Botany (ms # cjb-2025-0044). 

[15]. Little-Devito, M (2024). Impacts on water quality at a newly opened and extracted peatland: Influence of internal processes and hydrological connectivity in horticultural peat harvesting. MSc thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. 149 pp.

[16]. Khan AS, Guêné-Nanchen M & Rochefort L (2025). Unfolding a peatland’s story: Assessing the restoration outcomes and driving factors from a disturbed minerotrophic peatland in Eastern Canada. Ecological Engineering 212: 107496.

[17]. Yamoah F (2023). Hydrology of natural and constructed ecotones surrounding peatlands in southeastern Manitoba. MSc thesis, Brandon University, Manitoba, Canada. 72 pp.

[18]. Gutierrez-Pacheco S, Lagacé R, Hugron S, Godbout S & Rochefort L (2021). Estimation of daily water table level with bimonthly measurements in restored ombrotrophic peatland. Sustainability 13(10), 5474. 

Gutierrez Pacheco S (2023). Gestion de l'eau dans la culture de la sphaigne: nouvel indice de stress hydrique et modélisation du mouvement de l'eau dans les bassins de culture. Ph.D. thesis, Université Laval, Quebec, Canada. 138 pp.

Gutierrez Pacheco S, Lagacé R, Guêné-Nanchen M, Hugron S, Godbout S & Rochefort L (Resubmitted March 10, 2025) Seasonal indicators as key descriptors of water stress in Sphagnum farming systems. Mires and Peat. 

[19]. Guêné-Nanchen M & St-Hilaire B (2022). Sphagnum farming in Canada: State of knowledge. CSPMA and APTHQ. Quebec, Canada. 58 pp. 

[20]. Asif T (2025). Peatland ecological engineering: testing an approach to strengthen enzymic latch mechanism and impede carbon emissions in post-extracted unrestored and Sphagnum farming system. Ph.D. thesis, Université Laval, Quebec City, Canada. 146 pp.

[21]. Asif T, Rochefort L, Freeman C & Dunn C (Accepted April 14, 2025). Phenolic supplements: testing an approach to limit Sphagnum decomposition in a Sphagnum farming system. Frontiers in Environmental Science: Geosciences (ms# 1554757). 

[22]. https://www.hortidaily.com/article/9695637/80-of-canadian-peat-production-now-certified-we-re-not-phasing-peat-out/

[23]. Allan JM, Guêné-Nanchen M, Rochefort L, Douglas DJT & Axmacher JC (2024). Meta-analysis reveals that enhanced practices accelerate vegetation recovery during peatland restoration. Restoration Ecology 32(3): e14015.